Peasant agency, collective action, and institutions in early medieval societies: an approach from NW Iberia Álvaro Carvajal Castro University of Salamanca, Spain This is a section of Local Societies and Peasantry Agencies in Medieval Iberia(DOI: 10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7) by Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo Firenze University Press Florence 2024 https://doi.org/10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.02

Available for academic research purposes

Open Access

Copyright Author(s)

Content licence CC BY 4.0

Metadata licence CC0 1.0

This is original content, published for academic research purposes

 Digital edition XML powered by Booksflow

This paper engages critically with the idea that the individual household is the basic unit of social production and reproduction in peasant societies. Building upon a relational approach to agency and a critical approach to institutions, it argues that in order to develop a comprehensive theoretical framework on peasant agency in early medieval societies, we must account for the attested forms of collective action and consider the institutions that may have served as an interface between individual and collective agency. To demonstrate the potential of such approach, the paper addresses the role of property and commons as institutions mediating access to natural resources and conditioning individual agency. For this, the paper focuses on the extant written sources from NW Iberia. Ultimately, the aim is to explore avenues for dialogue between different disciplinary and methodological approaches to peasant agency in early medieval societies.

 Early Middle Ages Iberian Peninsula Critical Institutionalism Agency Peasants

It is available online at https://doi.org/10.36253/979-12-215-0562-7.02

References Agarwal, Bina. “Environmental action, gender equity and women’s participation.” Development and Change 28, no. 1 (1997): 1-44. Alfonso, Isabel. “Campesinado y derecho: la vía legal de su lucha (Castilla y León, siglos X-XIII).” Noticiario de Historia Agraria 13 (1997): 15-31. Alfonso, Isabel. “El formato de la información judicial en la Alta Edad Media peninsular.” In Chartes et cartulaires comme instruments de pouvoir. Espagne et Occident chrétien (VIIIe-XIIe siècles), edited by Julio Escalona and Helène Sirantoine, 191-218. Toulouse: Éditions Méridiennes, Université Toulouse le Mirail-CSIC, 2013. Alfonso, Isabel. “La contestation paysanne face aux exigences de travail seigneuriales en Castille et Léon: Les formes et leur signification symbolique.” In Pour une anthropologie du prélèvement seigneurial dans les campagnes médiévales (XIe-XIVe siècles): réalités et représentations paysannes. Colloque tenu à Medina del Campo du 31 mai au 3 juin 2000, edited by Monique Bourin and Pascual Martínez Sopena, 291-320. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2004. Alfonso, Isabel. “Litigios por la tierra y ‘malfetrías’ entre la nobleza medieval.” Hispania 57, no. 197 (1997): 917-55. Alfonso, Isabel. “Memoria e identidad en las pesquisas judiciales en el área castellano-leonesa medieval.” In Construir la identidad en la Edad Media, edited by José Antonio Jara Fuente, George Martin, and Isabel Alfonso, 249-79. Cuenca: Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 2010. Andrade Cernadas, José M. “La voz de los ancianos. La intervención de los viejos en los pleitos y disputas en la Galicia Medieval.” Hispania 72, no. 240 (2012): 11-34. Aoki, Masahiko. “Endogenizing institutions and institutional changes.” Journal of Institutional Economics 3, no. 1 (2007): 1-31. Assembly places and practices in medieval Europe, edited by Aliki Pantos and Sarah Semple. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004. Axelrod, Robert. The evolution of cooperation. New York: Basic Books, 1984. Barbero, Abilio and Marcelo Vigil. La formación del feudalismo en la Península Ibérica. Barcelona: Crítica, 1978. Barnwell, Paul S. “The early Frankish mallus: its nature, participants and practices.” In Assembly places and practices in medieval Europe, edited by Aliki Pantos and Sarah Semple, 233-46. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004. Barrett, Graham. Text and textuality in early medieval Iberia. The written and the world, 711-1031. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Bhaduri, Amit. “Economic power and productive efficiency in traditional agriculture.” In Power and economic institutions, edited by Bo Gustafsson, 53-68. Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1991. Bitel, Lisa M. Women in early medieval Europe, 400-1100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Bonales Cortés, Jacinto. “Individualismo agrícola y comunidad rural en el Pirineo catalán y Andorra (siglos XVIII-XX).” In Campos cerrados, debates abiertos. Análisis histórico y propiedad de la tierra en Europa (siglos XVI-XIX), edited by Rosa Congost and José Miguel Lana Berasain, 141-72. Pamplona: Universidad Pública de Navarra, 2007. Bullimore, Katherine. “Folcwin of Rankweil: the world of a Carolingian local official.” Early Medieval Europe 13, no. 1 (2005): 43-77. Burkitt, Ian. “Relational agency: Relational sociology, agency and interaction.” European Journal of Social Theory 19, no. 3 (2016): 322-39. Carvajal Castro, Álvaro, Julio Escalona, Iñaki Martín Viso, and Igor Santos Salazar. “Collective action in local contexts in the Kingdom of León (9th-11th centuries): An exploration of the charter evidence.” In Archaeology and history of peasantries 1: From the late Prehistory to the Middle Ages, edited by Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, 149-61. Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 2020. Carvajal Castro, Álvaro. “Collective action and local leaderships in early medieval north-western Iberia. ninth-eleventh centuries.” In Social inequality in early medieval Europe: Local societies and beyond, edited by Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, 281-99. Turnhout: Brepols, 2020. Carvajal Castro, Álvaro. “Local meetings and meeting places in early medieval León.” Early Medieval Europe 25, no. 2 (2017): 186-207. Carvajal Castro, Álvaro. “Prácticas colectivas y gestión de los espacios agrarios en la Alta Edad Media: una perspectiva comparada desde Irlanda y el noroeste de la península Ibérica.” Historia Agraria 73 (2017): 151-83. Carvajal Castro, Álvaro. “Secular sanctions and sales in early medieval León (9th-11th c.): Beyond diplomatic practice.” Al-Masāq 29, no. 2 (2017): 151-71. Casari, Marco and Maurizio Lisciandra. “Gender discrimination in property rights: Six centuries of commons governance in the Alps.” The Journal of Economic History 76, no. 2 (2016): 559-94. Chapelot, Jean and Robert Fossier. Le village et la maison au Moyen Age. Paris: Hachette littérature, 1980. Charles-Edwards, Thomas M., Early Irish and Welsh kinship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chayanov, Alexander V. The theory of peasant economy. Homewood (ILL): The American Economic Association, 1966. Cleaver, Frances and Jessica de Koning. “Furthering critical institutionalism.” International Journal of the Commons 9, no. 1 (2015): 1-18. Cleaver, Frances. Development through bricolage. Rethinking institutions for natural resource management. London: Routledge, 2012. Collins, Roger. “Sicut lex Gothorum continet: Law and charters in ninth- and tenth-century León and Catalonia.” English Historical Review 100, no. 396 (1985): 489-512. Collins, Roger. “Visigothic law and regional custom in disputes in early medieval Spain.” In The settlement of disputes in early medieval Europe, edited by Wendy Davies and Paul Fouracre, 85-104. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Conflict in medieval Europe. Changing perspectives on society and culture, edited by Warren C. Brown and Piotr Gorécki. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003. Congost, Rosa. “Property rights and historical analysis: What rights? What history?” Past & Present, no. 181 (2003): 73-106. Corbera Millán, Manuel, and Ricardo Ingelmo Casado. “Aportación a la historia de los terrazgos en la región Cantábrica. Sernas en el Valle del Saja y Liébana (Cantabria).” Historia Agraria 55 (2011): 13-45. Costambeys, Marios, Matthew Innes and Simon MacLean. The Carolingian world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Davies, Wendy and Paul Fouracre, eds. The settlement of disputes in early medieval Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Davies, Wendy. Acts of giving. Individual, community and the church in tenth century Spain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Davies, Wendy. Small worlds. The village community in early medieval Brittany. Londres: Duckworth, 1988. Davies, Wendy. Windows on justice in northern Iberia, 800-1000. London: Routledge, 2016. De Keyzer, Maïka. Inclusive commons and the sustainability of peasant communities in the medieval Low Countries. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018. De Moor, Tine. The dilemma of the commoners. Understanding the use of common-pool resources in long-term perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Dobres, Marcia-Anne and John E. Robb. “‘Doing’ agency: Introductory remarks on methodology.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 12, no. 3 (2005): 159-66. Duby, Georges. Guerriers et paysans. VII-XII siècle: premier essor de l’économie européenne. Paris: Gallimard, 1973. Escalona, Julio. “Community meetings in early medieval Castile.” In Power and place in Europe in the early Middle Ages, edited by Jayne Carroll, Andrew Reynolds and Barbara Yorke, 216–37. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. Escalona, Julio. “De señores y campesinos a poderes feudales y comunidades. Elementos para definir la articulación entre territorio y clases sociales en la Alta Edad Media castellana.” In Comunidades locales y poderes feudales en la Edad Media, edited by Ignacio Álvarez Borge, 115-57. Logroño: Universidad de La Rioja, 2001. Escalona, Julio. “The early Castilian peasantry: an archaeological turn?” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 1, no. 2 (2009): 119-45. Escalona, Julio. “Vínculos comunitarios y estrategias de distinción (Castilla, siglos X-XII).” In El contrato político en la Corona de Castilla. Cultura y sociedad políticas entre los siglos X al XVI, edited by François Foronda and Ana Isabel Carrasco Manchado, 17-42. Madrid: Dykinson, 2008. Estepa Díez, Carlos. “Propiedad agraria y dependencia campesina: en torno a la ‘heredad de foris’.” In Mundos medievales: espacios, sociedades y poder: homenaje al profesor José Ángel García de Cortázar y Ruiz de Aguirre, Vol. 1, edited by Beatriz Arízaga Bolumburu, Jesús Ángel Solórzano Telechea, Dolores Mariño Veiras, Carmen Díez Herrera, Esther Peña Bocos, Susana Guijarro González and Javier Añíbarro Rodríguez, 489-98. Santander: Universidad de Cantabria, 2012. Feller, Laurent, Agnès Gramain and Florence Weber, La fortune de Karol. Marché de la terre et liens personnels dans les Abruzzes au Haut Moyen Âge. Rome: École française de Rome, 2005. Fernández Flórez, José A. and Marta Herrero de la Fuente. “Libertades de los copistas en la confección de los cartularios: el caso del Becerro Gótico de Sahagún.” In Scribi e colofoni. Le sottoscrizioni di copista dalle origini all, avvento della stampa. Tai del seminario di Erice. X Colloquio del Comité internacional de paléographie latine (23-28 ottobre 1993), edited by Emma Condello and Giuseppe de Gregorio, 301-20. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi Sull´Alto Medioevo, 1995. Fernández Mier, Margarita and Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo. “El aprovechamiento de los espacios comunales en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica entre el período romano y el medieval.” Il Capitale culturale. Studies on the Value of Cultural Heritage 12 (2015): 689-717. Fernández Mier, Margarita. “Campos de cultivo en la Cordillera Cantábrica. La agricultura en zonas de montaña.” In Por una arqueología agraria. Perspectivas de investigación sobre espacios de cultivo en las sociedades medievales hispánicas, edited by Helena Kirchner, 41-59. Oxford: B.A.R., 2010. Galik, Christopher S. and Pamela Jagger. “Bundles, duties, and rights: A revised framework for analysis of natural resource property rights regimes.” Land Economics 91, no. 1 (2015): 76-90. Genicot, Léopold. Rural communities in the early medieval West. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. Giddens, Anthony. The constitution of society. Outline of the theory of structuration. Cambridge: Polity, 1984. Gómez Gómez, Javier and Iñaki Martín Viso. “Rationes y decimas: evidencias sobre la gestión de las sernas en el siglo XI en el noroeste de la península ibérica.” Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Serie III, H.ª Medieval 34 (2021): 359-82. Greif, Avner. Institutions and the path to the modern economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hamerow, Helena. Early medieval settlements. The archaeology of rural communities in north-west Europe, 400-900. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Hilton, Rodney. “Reasons for inequality among medieval peasants.” In Class conflict and the crisis of feudalism, edited by Rodney Hilton, 66-78. Londres: Verso, 1990 [1978]. Hindriks, Frank and Francesco Guala. “Institutions, rules and equilibria: a unified theory.” Journal of Institutional Economics 11, no. 3 (2015): 459-80. Isla Frez, Amancio. “La pervivencia de la tradición legal visigótica en el reino asturleonés.” Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, Nouvelle série 41, no. 2 (2011): 75-86. Jessop, Bob. “Institutional re(turns) and the strategic-relational approach.” Environment and Planning A 33, no. 7 (2001): 1213-35. Jessop, Bob. State power. A strategic-relational approach. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007. Joyce, Patrick Weston. Social history of ancient Ireland. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1903. Justo Sánchez, Daniel and Iñaki Martín Viso. “Territories and kingdom in the central Duero basin: the case of Dueñas (tenth–twelfth centuries).” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 12, no. 2 (2020): 177-98. Kirchner, Helena. “La arqueología del campesinado en época alto-medieval. Reflexiones y propuestas.” Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum 14 (2020): 462-97. Kohl, Thomas. “La agencia campesina y lo sobrenatural “. Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 38, no. 2 (2020): 97-116. Kosto, Adam J. “Sicut mos esse solet: documentary practices in Christian Iberia, c. 700-1000.” In Documentary culture and the laity in the early Middle Ages, edited by Warren C. Brown, Marios Costambeys, Matthew Innes and Adam J. Kosto, 259-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. La culture du haut Moyen Âge, une question d’élites?, edited by François Bougard, Régine Le Jan and Rosamond McKitterick. Turnhout: Brepols, 2009. La royauté et les élites dans l´europe carolingienne (du debut du IXe aux environs de 920), edited by Le Régine Jan. Lille: Centre d’Histoire de l´Europe du Nord-Ouest, 1998. Lana Berasain, José Miguel and Iñaki Iriarte Goñi. “The social embeddedness of common property rights in Navarra (Spain), sixteenth to twentieth centuries.” In Contexts of property in Europe: The social embeddedness of property rights in land in historical perspective, edited by Rosa Congost and Rui Santos, 83-103. Turnhout: Brepols, 2010. Larrea, Juan José. “Construir iglesias, construir territorio: las dos fases altomedievales de San Román de Tobillas (Álava).” In Monasteria et territoria. Elites, edilicia y territorio en el Mediterráneo medieval (siglos V-XI), edited by Jorge López Quiroga, Artemio M. Martínez Tejera and Jorge Morín de Pablos, 321-36. Oxford: B.A.R., 2007. Larrea, Juan José. “De la invisibilidad historiográfica a la apropiación del territorio: aldeas y comunidades en la España cristiana (siglos X y XI).” In Cristiandad e Islam en la Edad Media hispana. XVIII Semana de Estudios Medievales, edited by Juan Ignacio de la Iglesia Duarte, 169-207. Logroño: Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 2008. Leges Visigothorum (MGH LL nat. Germ. I 1), edited by Karl Zeumer. Hannover: Impensis Bibliopolii Hahniani, 1902. Les communautés villageoises en Europe occidentale du Moyen Áge aux Temps Modemes, edited by Charles Higounet. Auch: Centre culturel départemental de l'Abbaye de Flaran, 1984. Les élites au Haut Moyen Âge. Crises et renouvellements, edited by François Bougard, Laurent Feller and Régine Le Jan. Turnhout: Brepols, 2006. Les élites et la richesse au Haut Moyen Âge, edited by Jean-Pierre Devroey, Laurent Feller and Régine Le Jan. Turnhout: Brepols, 2010. Les élites et leurs espaces. Mobilité, Rayonnement, Domination (du VIe au XIe siècle), edited by Philippe Depreux, François Bougard and Régine Le Jan. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007. Lewis, Hana. “Elitismo y estatus: reevaluando la jerarquía de los asentamientos en la Inglaterra altomedieval “. Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 38, no. 2 (2020): 9-42. Long, Norman. Development sociology: Actor perspectives. London: Routledge, 2001. Loveluck, Chris. Northwest europe in the early Middle Ages, c. AD 600–1150. A comparative archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Luis Corral, Fernando. “Lugares de reunión, boni homines y presbíteros en Valdevimbre y Ardón en la Alta Edad Media.” Medievalista [en línea], no. 18 (2015). https://journals.openedition.org/medievalista/1093 [Date accessed: 26/10/2022]. Maine, Henry J.S. Ancient law. Its connection with the early history of society, and its relation to modern ideas. London: John Murray, 1861. Maine, Henry J.S. Village communities in the east and west. London: John Murray, 1871. Martín Viso, Iñaki. “Commons and the construction of power in the early Middle Ages: tenth-century León and Castile.” Journal of Medieval History 46, no. 4 (2020): 373-95. Martín Viso, Iñaki. “Unequal small worlds. Social dynamics in tenth-century Leonese villages.” In Social inequality in early medieval Europe. Local societies and beyond, edited by Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, 255-79. Turnhout: Brepols, 2020. Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. Pre-Capitalist Economic Formations, translated by Jack Cohen. New York: International Publishes, 1964. Mattoso, José. “Sanctio (875-1100).” Revista Portuguesa de Historia 13 (1971): 299-338. McDonagh, Briony. “Feminist historical geographies: doing and being.” Gender, Place & Culture 25, no. 11 (2018): 1563-78. Mínguez, José M.ª. Colección diplomática del monasterio de Sahagún (siglos IX y XI). León: Centro de Estudios e Investigación San Isidoro, 1976. Mouthon, Fabrice. Les communautés rurales en Europe au Moyen Âge. Une autre histoire politique du Moyen Âge. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2014. Nelson, Janet L. and Alice Rio. “Women and Laws in Early Medieval Europe.” In The Oxford handbook of women and gender in medieval Europe edited by Judith Bennett and Ruth Karras, 103-17. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. North, Douglas C. Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Oosthuizen, Susan. “Beyond hierarchy: the archaeology of collective governance.” World Archaeology 45, no. 4 (2013): 714-29. Ostrom, Elinor. Governing the commons. The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Ostrom, Elinor. Understanding institutional diversity. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005. Pastor, Reyna, Esther Pascua Echegaray, Ana Rodríguez López and Pablo Sánchez León, Beyond the market: Transactions, property and social networks in monastic Galicia, 1200-1300. Turnhout: Brepols, 2002. Pastor, Reyna. “Sobre la articulación de las formaciones económico-sociales: comunidades de aldea y señoríos en el norte de la península ibérica.” In Estructuras feudales y feudalismo en el mundo mediterráneo, edited by Pierre Bonassie, Thomas N. Bisson, Reyna Pastor and Pierre Guichard, 92-116. Barcelona: Crítica, 1984. Pastor, Reyna. Resistencias y luchas campesinas en la época del crecimiento y consolidación de la formación feudal: Castilla y León, siglos X-XIII. Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1980. Pastos, iglesias y tierras. Los comunales en la meseta del Duero (siglos IX-XII), edited by Iñaki Martín Viso. Madrid: Sílex, 2022. People and Space in the Middle Ages, edited by Wendy Davies, Guy Halsall, and Andrew Reynolds. Turnhout: Brepols, 2006. Portass, Robert. “Peasants, market exchange and economic agency in north-western Iberia, c.850–c.1050.” Past & Present 225, no. 1: 5-37. Portass, Robert. The village world of early medieval northern Spain: Local community and the land market. London: Royal Historical Society, 2017. Provero, Luigi. Contadini e potere nel Medioevo. Secoli IX-XV. Roma: Carocci Editore, 2020. Quirós Castillo, Juan Antonio, and Carlos Tejerizo-García. “Filling the gap: Peasant Studies and the archaeology of medieval peasantry in light of the northern Iberian evidence.” Journal of Agrarian Change 21, no. 2 (2021): 377-95. Quirós Castillo, Juan Antonio, ed. The archaeology of early medieval villages in Europe. Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 2009. Quirós Castillo, Juan Antonio. “An archaeology of “small worlds”: social inequality in early medieval Iberian rural communities.” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 12, no. 1 (2020): 3-27. Quirós Castillo, Juan Antonio. “Archaeology of early medieval peasantry in the Basque Country: Landscapes, economic trends and societal change in Álava.” Historia Agraria 82 (2020): 209-43. Quirós Castillo, Juan Antonio. “Introducción: Agencia del campesinado y de los grupos subalternos en la Alta Edad Media.” Studia Historia. Historia Medieval 38, no. 2 (2020): 3-7. Quirós Castillo, Juan Antonio. “La compleja interpretación de los registros arqueológicos domésticos de las sociedades locales altomedievales.” In Do Império ao Reino. Viseu e o território entre os séculos IV a XII, edited by Catarina Tente, 23-43. Viseu: C.M. Viseu, 2018. Reynolds, Susan. Kingdoms and communities in western Europe 900-1300. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984. Ribot, Jesse, C. and Nancy L. Peluso. “A theory of access.” Rural Sociology 68, no. 2 (2003): 153–81. Sáez, Emilio. Colección documental del archivo de la catedral de León (775-1230). Vol. I (775-952). León: Centro de Estudios e Investigación San Isidoro, 1987. Sánchez León, Pablo. “El poder de la comunidad.” In El lugar del campesino. En torno a la obra de Reyna Pastor, edited by Ana Rodríguez, 331-58. Valencia: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Valencia, 2007. Sánchez-Albornoz, Claudio. “Repoblación del reino asturleonés. Proceso, dinámica y proyecciones.” In Viejos y nuevos estudios sobre las instituciones medievales españolas. Tomo II, edited by Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz, 581-790. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1976. Schlager, Edella and Elinor Ostrom. “Property-rights regimes and natural resources: A conceptual analysis.” Land Economics 68, no. 3 (1992): 249-62. Schreg, Rainer. “El campesino eterno y la aldea atemporal. Arqueología e ideologías del pasado.” Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 38, no. 2 (2020): 43-73. Schroeder, Nicolas. “Iniciativa campesina y gestión dominical monástica en la Lotaringia del siglo X.” Studia Historica. Historia Medieval 38, no. 2 (2020): 75-95. Semple, Sarah, and Alexandra Sanmark. “Assembly in north west Europe: Collective concerns for early societies?”. European Journal of Archaeology 16, no. 3 (2013): 518–42. Shanin, Teodor. Naturaleza y lógica de la economía campesina. Barcelona: Anagrama, 1976. Sikor, Thomas and Christian Lund. “Access and property: A question of power and authority.” Development and Change 40, no. 1 (2009): 1-22. Social Inequality in Early Medieval Europe. Local Societies and Beyond, Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo. Turnhout: Brepols, 2020. Tarrow, Sidney. Power in movement: collective action, social movements and politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Tejerizo García, Carlos. “The archaeology of the peasant mode of production. Peasant-based societies in central and northern Iberia during the Early Middle Ages.” In Social inequality in early medieval Europe. Local societies and beyond, edited by Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, 331-54. Turnhout: Brepols, 2020. Tejerizo-García, Carlos. Arqueología de las sociedades campesinas en la Cuenca del Duero durante la primera Alta Edad Media. Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 2017. Tente, Catarina. “Social complexity and local communities during the tenth century in central-northern Portugal.” In Social inequality in early medieval Europe. Local societies and beyond, edited by Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, 149-63. Turnhout: Brepols, 2020. Tilly, Charles. The politics of collective violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Tock, Benoit-Mitchel. Scribes, souscripteurs et témoins dans les actes privés en France (VIIè – début XIIè siècle). Turnhout: Brepols, 2005. Van der Ploeg, Jan Douwe. Peasants and the art of farming: A Chayanovian manifesto. Blackpoint: Fernwood, 2013. Van Houts, Elisabeth. “Gender and authority of oral witnesses in Europe (800-1300).” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 9 (1999): 201-20. van Houts, Elisabeth. Memory and gender in medieval Europe : 900-1200. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999. Vinogradoff, Paul. Villainage in England. Essays in English mediaeval History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892. von Maurer, Georg Ludwig. Geschichte der Markenverfassung in Deutschland. Erlangen: Enke, 1856. White, Stephen. Custom, Kinship, and gifts to Saints: The laudatio parentum in western France, 1050-1150. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988. Whyte, Nicola. “Custodians of memory. Women and custom in rural England c. 1550–1700.” Cultural and Social History 8, no. 2 (2011): 153-73. Wickham, Chris. “La cristalización de la aldea en la Europa Occidental (800-1100).” In Movimientos migratorios, asentamientos y expansión (siglos VIII-XI). En el centenario del profesor José María Lacarra (1907-2007). XXXIV Semana de Estudios Medievales. Estella (16-20 de julio de 2007), 33-51. Pamplona: Gobierno de Navarra, Institución Príncipe de Viana, 2008. Wickham, Chris. “Le forme del feudalesimo.” In Il feudalesimo nell’alto medioevo, vol. 1 (Settimane di studio 47), 15–46. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi Sull’Alto Medioevo, 2000. Wickham, Chris. “Looking forward: peasant revolts in Europe, 600–1200.” In The Routledge History handbook of medieval revolt, edited by Justine Firnhaber-Baker and Dirk Schoenaers, 155–167. London: Routledge, 2017. Wickham, Chris. “Space and society in early medieval peasant-conflicts.” In Uomo e spazio nell´alto medioevo. 50 Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo (Spoleto, 4-8 aprile, 2002), 551-85. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi Sull’Alto Medioevo, 2003. Wickham, Chris. Comunità e clientele nella Toscana del XII secolo. Le origini del comune rurale nella Piana di Lucca. Roma: Viella, 1995. Wickham, Chris. Framing the early Middle Ages. Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Wickham, Chris. The mountains and the city. The Tuscan Apennines in the early Middle Ages. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. Wolf, Eric. Peasants. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966. Yante, Jean-Marie and Anne-Marie Bultot-Verleysen, eds. Autour du “village”. Établissements humains, finages et communautés rurales entre Seine et Rhin (IVe-XIIIe siècles). Actes du colloque international de Louvain-la-Neuve (16-17 mai 2003). Turnhout: Brepols, 2010. Zeller, Bernhard, Charles West, Francesca Tinti, Marco Stoffella, Nicolas Schroeder, Carine van Rhijn, Stefen Patzold, Thomas Kohl, Wendy Davies, and Miriam Czock, Neighbours and strangers. Local societies in early medieval Europe. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2020.