Natalia V. Kareva, Evgeny G. Pivovarov

Аннотация: Рукописная немецкая грамматика Иоанна Венера Пауса (1706). Петровское время характеризовалось быстрым усвоением западных ценностей и революционными изменениями в русской культуре, сохраняя при этом зависимость от традиций предшествующей эпохи. Рукописный учебник И.В. Пауса Manuductio ad linguam Germanicam (1706) является ярким примером синтеза двух культурных течений. Структуру и основные дефиниции Паус заимствовал у М. Смотрицкого. При этом некоторые кодификационные решения указывают на влияние немецких «универсальных» грамматик XVII века. Учебник Пауса позволяет представить, как в Московской гимназии обучали немецкому языку: преподавание велось на русском с использованием латинской (и изредка немецкой) терминологии.

Ключевые слова: Паус, грамматика, немецкий язык

The Petrine period has been conventionally assessed as both rapidly adopting Western values and revolutionary regarding the earlier Russian cultural tradition, although still reliant on it1. The recruitment of foreign specialists, initiated by the first Romanovs, became more and more common. Initially, non-Russian military officers, merchants, craftsmen and physicians lived in a separate German Quarter, the Nemetskaya sloboda in Moscow. During and soon after his Grand Embassy of 1697–98, Peter I promoted two simultaneous measures. Hundreds of young Russians were sent to Germany, France, Italy, Holland and England to be educated, while an ever-expanding stream of Europeans was hired to come work in Russia. These were people of different backgrounds, education, experience and religious beliefs, and adapted differently to the unfamiliar environment. The Nemetskaya sloboda was not homogenous. Thus, rivalry between Protestant and Catholic schools in Moscow drove Halle Pietists’ adherent Justus Samuel Scharschmid, pastor of a new Lutheran congregation, to seek out skilled teachers (Ковригина 1999, 307). In response to his summons, the well-educated scholar and preacher, Johann Werner Paus, arrived to Russia in the winter of 1701–1702 (РГАДА. Ф. 150/1. Л. 160. № 1; about his journey see: Winter 1959).

The protocol of Paus’ interrogation (published by Перетц 1902, 109–10, втор. паг.; Белокуров и Зерцалов 1907, 38–9) indicates that on January 10, 1702, “A foreigner from Saxony Jagan Werner [i.e., Paus] appeared at the Ambassadorial Office [Posol’skiy prikaz] […] and during the questioning he said: he was born […] in the city of Salz, in the Saxon land; he studied at school and, [working] in the appropriate disciplines he reached philosophy; and the highest authorities in the city of Halle conferred him the title of professor. And last year, pastor Sharsmith (Шарсмитъ) [sic] wrote from Moscow, from the German Quarter, to the head of their school, asking that he choose a professor, a learned person, and send [him] to Moscow. And in response to the pastor’s letter, the head professor sent him, Jagan, to Moscow, and he, Jagan, came to Moscow […] to teach Greek, Latin, German, and Hebrew languages in school […].” The unnamed recommender was Paus’ mentor, the outstanding Pietist August Hermann Francke (for his testimonial, see Перетц 1902, 110; Смагина 1998, 146).

In Moscow Paus began studying Russian, making extracts from the Gospel (НИОР БАН. Собр. иностр. рук. Q 193). He taught at the New Lutheran Church school and then at Johann Ernst Glück’s gymnasium. Its head and tutors were also Pietists (Ковригина, 1999, 318–19, 325). After Glück’s death, Paus became the gymnasium’s director. However, “a bright devotee of the ascetic trend” in Pietism, he was unable to find common ground with his less strict and austere colleagues and after endless quarrels had to leave the school (Winter 1953, 169–70; Winter 1958, 745; Смагина 1998, 147; Ковригина, 1999, 325–27).

By that time Paus had compiled a number of translated and original works, including: tonic verses (НИОР БАН. Собр. иностр. рук. Q 213. Л. 179);-1 a History of Constantinople — История Царьградская (Моисеева 1980, 36–39); Russian variants of pedagogical treatises by François Fénelon and Erasmus of Rotterdam (Bragone 2012; Брагоне 2012); the Russian version of selected dialogs from Selectiora quædam colloquia latino-germanica by Johann Georg Seybold (Брагоне 2021a, 201–36); a translation of Luther’s Small Catechism (Брагоне 2021b, 237–53); and dictionaries (Михальчи 1963, 115–19). Paus probably collaborated with Glück in adapting John Amos Comenius’s books (Перетц 1902, 159–61; Безрогов, Кошелева и Ромашина 2021, 130). In 1705 he also started working on a Slavonic-Russian grammar, which was presented to the Academy of Sciences two decades later (НИОР БАН, Осн. собр. Q 192/I; its publication: Keipert 2016)-1. Various of his manuscripts concerning his tutoring and workaday activities, have found their way into archives in St. Petersburg and Moscow, such as school curricula (НИОР БАН. Собр. иностр. рук. Q 213); rules of conduct for gymnasium students and teachers (РГАДА. Ф. 364. Д. 109. Л. 63; Ковригина 1998, 325–26); and his diaries (СПбФ АРАН. Р. III. Оп. 1. № 167. Л. 12–17; Винтер 1959, 315). During this period, in 1706, Paus composed his German grammar — Manuductio ad linguam Germanicam sive Teutonicam in commodum juventutis Slavono Rossicae studio. Zuführung zur Teutschen Sprache den Anfahenden zum Nützen. Приведенiе къ германскомꙋ языкꙋ въ ползꙋ начинающимꙋ — Introduction to the German Language for the Benefit of Beginners.

Manuductio ad linguam Germanicam consists of notes and was preserved as part of a manuscript miscellany (НИОР БАН. Собр. иностр. рук. O 121) (Мурзанова, Боброва и Петров 1956, 208; Копанев et al. 1958, 263). Apart from the German grammar (Л. 1–38) the miscellany contains: (1) Colloquia ex Ludolfi grammatica — the Russian part of the dialogues from Heinrich Wilhelm Ludolf’s textbook (Л. 47–61);-1 Paus probably wanted to translate them to German. (2) Delineamenta D-ni Praepositi Glukii, quae de Ruthenica grammatica duxit magno hinc inde hiatu — the sections about verbs and syntax from Glück’s grammar (Л. 90–122)-1. (3) Всякие беседы — All sorts of conversations, a Russian-German thematic phrasebook-1 (Л. 127–37, 152–56 об.). (4) Gemeine Gespräche […] in Veneroni Grammatic zu finden — the German dialogues from Giovanni Veneroni’s grammar (Л. 157–78 об.)-1. (5) Allersame Redens-Arten — an anthology of German expressions used in various situations (Л. 178 об.–186 об.). In 1724, Paus was invited to join the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. After his death, the scholar’s extensive private library and manuscript collection — 220 items on history, philology, pedagogy, and manuals for the study of foreign languages, apparently including Manuductio ad linguam Germanicam — entered the Academy library (Протоколы заседаний конференции императорской Академии наук, 170–90).

These documents were written in one hand, although the ink was changed several times. Its total volume is 185 leaves in 8o. Some sheets are left blank. The text has attracted scholars’ attention, primarily due to the fragment of Glück’s grammar (Keipert, Uspenskij, Živov 1994, 13–6). Some information about Paus’ German grammar may be found in V. N. Peretz, D. E. Mikhalchi and K. Koch’s works (Перетц 1902, 163; Михальчи 1963, 113–14; Koch 2002, 213–14). However, until now the manual’s linguistic conception and its terminology have not been analyzed. Yet Paus’ notes broke new ground in trying to compile a foreign language grammar for Russian students in their native tongue.

Most of the manuscript is in Russian, using terminology dating back to Meletius Smotrytsky’s “Grammar”. Paus potentially worked with its 1648 Moscow edition, as Peretz points out that having arrived in the country he learnt Russian from this book (Перетц 1902, 151–52). In Manuductio ad linguam Germanicam the author predominantly used Slavonic terms, but he also interspersed the text with Latin terms in transliteration and provided brief explanations in German. The manuscript indicates that he initially planned to organize a manual in question-answer form, but later abandoned this idea — see the crossed-out lines on leaf 3: «Какимъ образомъ немецкои языкъ учится? Отвҍтъ. Прилҍжнымъ собранiемъ […] Извҍстнымъ раздҍленiемъ реченiи или словесъ. Разумнымъ сочинениемъ ихъ». And further on the same leaf: «Сия реченiя какая и коликогꙋбая суть? [crossed out] Сꙋть осмократная, иногда же нарицаются осмь части слова» (Л. 3).

The author distinguishes the following parts of speech in German: noun («имя»), pronoun («мҍстоименiе»), verb («глаголъ»), participle («причастiе»), adverb («нарҍчiе»), preposition («предлогъ»), conjunction («соꙋзъ»), interjection («междометiе») (Л. 3). In the first part of his textbook (Л. 2 об.–19) he writes about nouns, pronouns and verbs, while articles are not considered as a separate category. At first, Paus suggests that “small words” should be regarded as adjectives: «Къ прилагателным причисляются малая словца […]». Later he struck out that phrase and just stated that the Germans, according to Greek custom, put «small words» before nouns. Such speech units are called articles: «Германцы по обычаю греческому представляютъ своим именамъ малая словца, которая и артикулы нарицаются der, die, das, ein, eine, ein» (Л. 3–3 об.). Our perspective suggests that Paus’s indecision on how to assign and label articles arises from their absence in Smotritsky’s “Grammar”, which provided no distinct recognition or terminology for them.

Following, obviously, Smotrytsky’s Grammar, Paus defines the noun as the denotation of “a thing declining by cases without time [tense]”: «Что есть имя? [crossed out] Имя есть часть слова вещи нареченiе, падежми скланяющая безъ времене» — сompare Smotrytsky’s definition: «Имя естъ часть слова вещи нареченiе падежьми скланяющая, времене же дҍйство, или страданiе знаменоующаго не имоущая» ([Смотрицкий] 1648, л. 76 об.). In German it is twofold — a substantive and adjective, «Сколикогꙋбо есть имя? [crossed out] Имя есть сꙋгꙋбо, сꙋществителное якѡ der Himmel, der Mensch и прилагателное якѡ himmlich, menschlich» (Л. 3). The scholar also distinguishes three types of noun declension — masculine (der Mann мужъ), feminine (die Frau жена) and neuter (das Thier животно), noting the different number of cases in German and Russian. He notes that German has only four cases. Vocative forms coincide with Nominative. The meanings of «Narrative» (i.e., Prepositional) and Instrumental are expressed by other cases with prepositions: «Немецкiи толкѡ четыри падежи ꙋпотребляетъ звателнiи бо тоиже есть Именителныи, Сказателнiи же, и творителныи иными падежми со предлогомъ гл҃ятся. Якѡ рꙋкою mit der Hand, перомъ mit der Feder. ѡ҆ Бзѣ von Gott» (Л. 4 об.).

Listing productive suffixes, Paus differentiates between primitive («первообразная»: Gott богъ, Feuer огнь) and derivative («производная»: gottlig бж҃iи, feuerig огненныи) words. The latter includes diminutives («умалителная» Buchlein или Buchelgen книжица) (Л. 8 об). Depending upon their derivational complexity, words can be simple or compound: «Реченiе есть по начертанiю простое, якѡ Engel агглъ gerecht праведныи […] или сложное, якѡ Ertz Engel архагглъ ungerecht неправедныи» (Л. 9). Subsequently three degrees of comparison of adjectives are described: positive («положителныи»), comparative («разсудителныи») and superlative («превосходителныи»): «По г҃ степенемъ ꙋравняются сиречь ꙋмножаются и ꙋменшаются по знаменованiю» (Л. 9). Pronouns are regarded as an inflected part of the speech, used in place of nouns: «Mҍстоименiе гл҃ется, понеже въ мҍсто имене прiемлемое, есть часть слова скланяемая» (Л. 9 об.) — сompare Smotrytsky’s definition: «Mҍстоименiе, есть часть слова скланяемая, в мҍсто имене прiемлемое» ([Смотрицкий] 1648, л. 154). Subsequently, German pronouns with Russian translation and declension are presented.

A large portion of the text is devoted to the verb. Again, following Smotrytsky, Paus defines it as an inflected part of speech which signifies action, suffering or something similar, and indicating tense: «Глаголъ есть часть слова скланяемая дҍйство или страсть или срдное что со временемъ знаменꙋющая» (Л. 10) — compare: «Глаголъ естъ часть слова скланяемая со различными наклоненiи и времены дҍйство, или страсть, или среднее что знаменꙋющая» ([Смотрицкий] 1648, л. 180). Personal («личныи»), impersonal («безличныи») and irregular («стропотныи») verbs are singled out: «а҃. личныи, иже вся три лица имҍетъ. Ich liebe, du liebest, er liebet, люблю, любишь, любитъ. в҃. безличныи, иже парвагѡ и вторагѡ лица лишается, якѡ подобаетъ es gebührt sich, man soll. лҍпотствꙋетъ es steht wohl. г҃. стропотныи, иже не по правилꙋ, якѡ есмь ich bin, ich will» (Л. 10). Three voices are marked — active, passive and «middle» (i.e., mediopassive) — and four moods — indicative, imperative, subjunctive and infinitive: «а҃. Изявителное, имже что изявляемъ. в҃. Повелителное, имже что повелҍваемъ или заказываемъ. г҃. Сослагателное или подчинителное. д҃. Не ѡпредҍленное, еже число и лица не имҍетъ» (Л. 10).

Five tenses are introduced: present («настоящее»), future («будущее») and three different variations of past — imperfect («преходящее»), perfect («прешедшее») and past perfect («мимошедшее»): «Cꙋть же пять времена, коемꙋждо свое знаменiе. а҃. настоящее якѡ люблю ich liebe. в҃. преходящее любилъ ich liebte [on the margins — «знамя te»]. г҃. прешедшее любилъ ich habe geliebet [on the margins — «знамя ich habe»]. д҃. мимошедшее любилъ ich hatte geliebet. e҃. Будущее возлюблю ich werde lieben» (Л. 10). The semantic and aspectual differences between past tenses are clarified: «Преходящее, прешедшее и мимошедшее знаменуютъ прошлое время: преходящее есть несовершеннѡ прошлое, прешдшее есть совершеннѡ прошлое, мимошедшее же есть болшҍ нежели совершеннѡ прошлое время. Якѡ творихъ ich thäte, творяхъ ich habe gethan, творяахъ ich hatte gethan» (Л. 10). Paus added auxiliary verb conjugation tables and lists of verbs that have a changing root vowel. The first part ends by noting that participles should be treated separately — «ѡ причастiи не нꙋжно ест здҍ писати […] ѡ нарҍчiи, предлозҍ, и союзҍ въ низу зри, въ сѵнтаѯiи» (Л. 19); in the section on syntax (see below), they are described together with adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions.

The second part (Л. 19 об.–38) contains rules ordering sentence structure. Paus paid attention to the different usage of verbs, pronouns and cases in German and Russian. This section may be considered as an original attempt to compare the two languages. Here, transliterated Latin terms along with Russian equivalents are often used: «Немецкиi Адѥктива [above «прилагателная»] представляютъ сꙋбстантивами [crossed out, written above «существителнымъ»], прономина же [crossed out, written above «такожде и прилагателная»] mein, dein, sein, unser, euer никогда набыкаютъ после становится» (Л. 19 об.); «Глаголъ есмь ich bin, еси du bist, er ist, wir sind по немецки приснѡ ꙋпотребляется, хотя по рꙋски нҍть»; «Въ вопросах персона по немецки по глъ ставится, аще же вопросъ нҍсть представится» (Л. 20); «Сверх тогѡ общи вопроси вънимати надобнѡ. Якѡ въ притяженiи ѡтвҍщаютъ имҍнителномъ или дателномъ Wem ist dieß Buch? Чья есть сия книга. Antwort, ѡтвҍтъ Mein мои, dem Herrn, Гдинꙋ» (Л. 21 об.); «Въмҍстоименiа себя, себҍ, свои, свое и пр. по немецки не употребляютъ толкѡ у третья пресоны […] Съ первымъ и вторымъ лицемъ никогда составляются» (Л. 22 об.); «Нарҍчiе nicht ни часто после ставится или послҍднѡ, хотя по рꙋски въ началҍ есть» (Л. 24 об.); «Глаголъ есмь, еси, есть, всегда при себҍ именителныи желаетъ»; «Въ мҍсто рҍчи ꙋ меня, ꙋ тебя есть по немецки гл҃ется имҍю ich habe»; «Во ꙋподобленiи или разсꙋжденiи немецкiи всегда ꙋпотребляетъ als [between the lines — или den]» (Л. 29 об.).

In addition to syntax, the second section deals with participles, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. According to Paus, German participles, being either present or past active, passive, or «middle» (i.e., mediopassive), received their name from the fact that, like nouns, they have declension and gender and, like verbs, change in tenses and moods: «Причастiя германяни поставляютъ два, едино дҍиствителное настоящего времене, якѡ liebend, hörend […] а другое дҍиствителное, или страдателное или средное прошл: вре: якѡ geliebet, gehöret […] Причастiе зовутъ, для того что часть прiемлютъ ѿ имене, сиречь склоненiе и род и ѿ гла время» (Л. 36 об.).

The adverb is defined as an indeclinable part of speech, linked to an adjective or verb: «часть слова нескланяемая имени прилагат: или глꙋ прилагаемая» (Л. 27 об.). It denotes place, time, number, quality and quantity, comparison, as well as other things («прочая сꙋть различная»). In this last category particles and modal words such as “нҍтъ nicht, естьли wenn, во истинҍ Wahrhaftig” (Л. 29) etc. are included.

Prepositions, including prefixes, are characterized as the sixth part of speech, connected to nouns and verbs: «Предлогъ есть шестая часть слова, именамъ и г҃ламъ предлагаемая» (Л. 36). They may be separate from nouns and verbs (Paus calls them «свойственная», «сочинителнiе» or «ѡтлучителная») or attached to them («не сочинителнiе» or «не ѡтлучителная») (Л. 35 об., 36). Russian terms are accompanied by German analogues — «absonderliche» и «unabsonderliche» [Vorwörte] (Л. 35 об.), derived, apparently, from Johann Bödiker’s grammar (Bödiker 1690, 372, 447). The author indicates the existence of compound prepositions and adds that different prepositions “attract” («притяжаютъ») different cases (Л. 36). A small section, containing examples of usage, is devoted to conjunctions (Л. 29, 35–35 об.). The section on interjections is missing. Blank sheets imply that the grammar was not finished.

Manuductio ad linguam Germanicam cannot be considered as a textbook in the full sense of the word. However, these notes allow us to reconstruct how German was taught at the Moscow gymnasium. Paus spoke Russian, often resorting to Latin terminology and occasionally to the German. He borrowed the basic terms and definitions from Smotrytsky, while his decision to consider names, pronouns and verbs in the first part and the remaining parts of speech in the second indicates an orientation on German “universal” grammars of the seventeenth century that he was familiar with-1. Christoph Helvig and Bödiker, for example, also contrast the main and secondary parts of speech (Карева и Кузнецова 2021, 550–51).

Such a combination of Church Slavonic and European elements became a characteristic feature of many early eighteenth-century bilingual manuals. Thus, in the Russian part of the German textbook compiled by Martin Schwanwitz and published by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1730 (Карева и Пивоваров 2020, 485–86), the author used transliterated Latin terms with the Russian equivalents given in brackets. Schwanwitz’s use of several linguistic systems at once may have followed the practice used in his colleague’s notes.