In 2021, the EU adopted its first European Climate Law (Regulation EU 2021/1119). It set Europe’s goals of becoming climate neutral by 2050, as well as a target of 55% less emissions by 2030, compared to 1990 (Regulation EU 2021/1119). The transition to clean energy and technologies is an incentive for environmental and energy sustainability, biodiversity protection, safeguard of the health of nature and people, but also economic growth and innovation, climate change mitigation, reduction of anthropogenic effects and GW. As required by the Climate Law in February 2024, an additional interim target of 90% less emissions by 2040, is envisaged.

Accordingly, scientific studies in the literature have widely demonstrated the beneficial implications of NbS on the Enhanced Weathering (EW), human health, Urban Heat Island (UHI), and other climate change related phenomena (Santamouris 2020; Cui et al. 2024; Mahmoud 2011; Yang et al. 2016; Chàfer et al. 2022; Choi and Yeom 2017).

International and National policies have recently planned reforestation interventions in urban and sub-urban areas. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), highlights NbS as actions that protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems while addressing social challenges and providing benefits for both human well-being and biodiversity (IUCN 2020). Consequently, a method to quantify quality and effectiveness of integrated green solutions and NbS is necessary. This entails the possibility of pursuing the objectives of the European Green Deal and the Sustainable Transition by strongly supporting the decision-making policies of local authorities and public administrations.

The physical-real knowledge of phenomena and the characterization of the urban microclimate at hyperlocal scale (i.e. under the canopy layer where mass and energy exchanges interact in transient conditions with fluid dynamics and variable and impulsive external/internal forcing) is possible by means of applied Thermodynamics (Balocco et al. 2025; Cureau et al. 2024; Piselli et al. 2022).

This allows to physically treat the huge amount of environmental data, and to define sustainable energy planning strategies at the urban scale and/or of the single building, block or district.

The identification of the most suitable NBS typologies, their optimal locations and implementation are identified by the proposed methodological approach application. It is based on applied physical informed modelling at small and large urban scale. It is a systemic thermodynamics method based on environmental energy physics that allows the quantification of the energy sustainability and effects of green ecosystem services and/or NbS integration in any urban area.

In this section important examples of the method’s application, recently published, are shown and discussed. Results, mainly indications, comparisons and discussion in the perspective of Physics and Thermodynamics analysis and implementation are provided. Specifically, the first example is the method’s application at small scale (i.e. single building, groups of buildings, block, neighborhood), the second and third examples are the method’s application at large scale (urban area, metropolitan area, municipality).

The first example is a small scale method’s application (Balocco and Leoncini 2023) based on energy, environmental and economic impact evaluation for different regeneration proposals, combining a green system integration. The case study is the Don Milani primary school in San Lorenzo in Greve expansion zone of the metropolitan area of Florence. This study allows to extend the validity of the method to similar cases and conditions and to provide a basic tool to Municipalities and Public Administrations as basic knowledge for future projects oriented towards the energy transition, and specific tailored training. The method is composed of two interconnected phases.

The first phase concerns the energy analysis of the existing state and critical issues identification: three-dimensional modelling of the school building; boundary conditions definition (e.g. climate data, built environment and surrounding greenery data); thermo-physical features based on current legislation and the census of the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT); model validation.

The second phase concerns the identification of green energy solutions, NbS integrations, plant systems revamping (air conditioning and lighting) and improvement of the thermo-physical and energy performance of the building; multi-scenario analysis; results analysis and comparison; energy costs and environmental impact analysis; comparisons between the existing state and the proposed energy efficiency scenarios; potential and effects of NbS solutions in relation to the green system.

Interventions with low interference on regular school activities are proposed, taking into account the environmental and social costs of the construction site, also due to the movement of students and school staff. Building refurbishment: strong insulation of all the external walls (reduced thermal transmittance from 0.75 to 0.20 W/m2K); existing windows replacement with new thermal break ones (thermal transmittance reduced from 3.60 to 1.30 W/m2K); attic insulation (reduced average thermal transmittance from 1.45 to 0.20 W/m2K).

The result obtained is the new Energy Class D, corresponding to 120 kWh/m2 year. The reduction in the use of primary resources is 25% equal to the reduction in equivalent CO2 emissions. At the same time the internal environment improvement, due to more homogeneous thermal field, average radiant temperature close to the set-point temperature, temperature gradients attenuation, especially near the windows, are the scope obtained. Using the PMV and PPD indices (respectively, Predicted Mean Vote and Predictable Percentage of Dissatisfied, UNI EN ISO 7730-2006), the operating temperature inside the classroom more unfavorably exposed to solar radiation is calculated. Therefore, during winter conditions, a student placed in the center of the classroom in its current state, i.e. without insulation interventions, perceives a temperature of 17.6 °C, while in the energy regeneration conditions, she/he would perceive 19.7 °C.

The cost for the solutions implementation, referring to the BAU (Building As Usual) approach and without benefiting from any form of incentive, is estimated to be higher than €1M. The unit amounts applied to the calculation basis are €170/m2 for external insulation, €600/m2 for window frames replacement and €120/m2 for attic insulation.

This set of interventions cannot have recovery margins beyond the expected useful life, estimated at 20 years pursuant to EU Delegated Regulation 244/2012.

The building is more than 50 years old, during which only maintenance work has been carried out to allow its regular use. Multiple scenarios are designed with effective solutions (thermal system), combined with the integration of sustainable strategies (PV system) and greenery (NbS).

The following scenarios are then implemented and simulated. The reference scenario: maintenance of the current gas-fired mono-functional thermal power plant, with heat generator replacement (condensing boiler, 480 kW, efficiency of 95% at nominal power and 105% at reduced load). A modulating proportional regulation is implemented, with an external climate probe with a compensation curve.

The plant retrofitting strategies (named alternative scenario, AS) are: AS1(hybrid system, consisting of a 480 kW gas-fired condensing boiler and a 160 kW air-to-water aerothermal electric heat pump); AS2: “all electric” (air-water heat pump sized to cover the total thermal load (480 kW) with an average seasonal COP of 3); AS3: equal to 2), but with a PV system on the roof (monocrystalline silicon modules, 90 kWp peak power); AS4 includes all choices of 3) combined with the above PV system on the roof; AS5 green roof solution (integration of greenery as an extensive covering).

In particular, a simplified model for green coverage simulation is used, assuming the horizontal homogeneity of the slab and heat and mass flows mainly vertical, adopting one-dimensional equations to describe the thermal behavior of each layer at semi-steady state conditions.

The extensive solution is modelled taking into account a traditional structure (i.e. total thickness 16 cm, substrate thickness 12 cm, flow coefficient < 0.36, volume of water available for plants ≥ 55 l/m2, usability ratio ≥ 0.84%, efficiency ratio ≥ 0.56, maximum water retained ≥ 65 l/m², system thermal resistance ≥ 0.47 (m²K)/W, substrate permeability ≥ 15 mm/min, substrate cation exchange capacity ≥ 15meq/100 g.

For all the proposals the Building Automation and Control System (BACS) is implemented: it provides a centralized regulation, operating on the flow temperature of the heat transfer fluid, and a peripheral regulation for each terminal equipment.

Figure 2 and Figure 3 show, respectively, results for the interventions on the energy efficiency and environmental impact.

The Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis allows choosing between a hybrid system and an “all-electric” system, and between drawing from the grid or self-producing the necessary electricity. The resulting Discounted Cash Flow-DCF value indicates that the hybrid system solution powered by PV is better, because it represents the best compromise between investment costs and operating costs (Figure 4). On the other hand, this solution oriented to the maximum use of renewable sources, provides a great energy autonomy to the school.

The extensive green roof is not considered for the LCC analysis and in combination with the proposed solutions, because it is not so significant compared to the advanced insulation alone. It is well-known that green roofs and cool-roof solutions allow to significantly reduce the surface temperature values but for very large surfaces.

In particular, while cool-roofs are more effective in terms of UHI mitigation, green roofs, especially the extensive type, can have an impact on the reduction of the building annual primary energy requirements when the coverage is appreciable compared to the total dispersing envelope surface. From a thermal point of view, greenery integration shows its effects on the external forces mainly for solar gains reduction therefore as an important regenerative and resilience solution.

A reduction in solar gains of 0.7 kWh/m2year (assuming an average solar absorption factor of 0.3) capable of containing the overheating of the first floor, together with a 5% reduction in annual CO2 emissions, due to the green roof alone, compared to the current state, has been reached.

The extensive green roof has an appreciable impact on the increase in mass and thermal inertia of the floor. Therefore, the integration of the proposed efficiency solutions with a green system, in the surrounding area of the school, and NbS, has produced a UHI significant reduction with highly positive effects on biodiversity conservation, life quality and people’s health.

Trees with significant leaf density (e.g. tall beech trees), in reference to literature on the subject, have produced a CO2 absorption of 10-20 kg/year, 17.50-9.5 kg/year of O3, 8.89-16.12 kg/year of NO2, within a growth cycle that reaches its maximum in a time interval between 20 and 40 years. Literature references [23-25] indicate that a developed lime tree is able to absorb 140 kg (CO2)/year, as well as an elm.

The neighbourhood of Don Milani school is located in the South-West of Florence, near agricultural areas, with a sparsely populated urban fabric and large unbuilt spaces. The school has an empty area treated as a lawn of 3500 m2 (beyond the entrances). In this area, 70 tall trees with a dense mesh have been proposed to be planted, guaranteeing a total of 9800 kg (CO2)/year absorbed. Currently the school (building-plant system) generates direct and indirect emissions of 115000 kg (CO2)/year.

The systemic integration of vegetation with NbS has produced a buffer effect on external forcings, and damping effect on climate change. All the proposed energy regeneration scenarios involve a drastic reduction in emissions, reaching up to 25000 kg (CO2)/year for the hybrid system scenario combined with photovoltaics. Therefore, to create a school with zero impact, less than one hectare of intensive tree cultivation would be sufficient. All this, was suggested to be planned considering the different times needed for greenery and building-system.

The second example concerns large scale method’s application, with a top-down and bottom-up implementing processes (Balocco et al. 2025). The implementation needs evaluation and processing of data and/or digital information on the studied urban area: e.g., standard meteorological data/files or real measurements acquired from the local meteorological stations closest to the investigated areas, the buildings characteristics as the surface area in plan, height, volume, prevalent intended use, as well as green areas for specific plant species. The next phase was the georeferencing and modelling with Geographical Information Systems (GIS).

Depending on the useful, available, and traceable information, two different but equivalent modelling processes by applying environmental thermodynamics are implemented: the “top-down” considers the urban context as a 2D footprint of greenery and buildings, or at a two-dimensional areal scale. It is of immediate application and is applied to evaluate the enthalpy variations on a large scale in the summer period, even when the information on buildings is not complete or scarce; the “bottom-up” considers the urban context and the volumetric morphology with details on the buildings, i.e., it is at a 3D volumetric areal scale. It requires a more in-depth analysis at the district level to evaluate the variation of air enthalpy connected to the air exchange volumes for the summer cooling of each building. In both approaches, the first fundamental energy balance is applied to the green cover under the hypothesis of considering leaf surfaces as continuous, uniform, and homogeneous-isotropic.

The balance involves only the ’urban forest’ type as a green surface system, as it is the only configuration capable of having a real impact on the energy issue in the urban context, thus excluding low shrubs, hedges, and grass. The balance therefore allows for the determination of the surface temperature of the greenery in a simplified way, determining how a leaf surface exchanges thermal energy (i.e., latent heat and sensible heat) with the environment, disregarding the morphology, the set of physiological and water processes of the plant itself and interaction of its leaves with the soil and atmosphere. In particular, the evapotranspiration processes of the leaves surface is evaluated referring to literature evidences (Costa-Filho et al. 2021; Balocco and Petrone 2018).

The second resulting energy balance is applied to the building–plant system, to assess the HVAC–plant energy consumption due to the thermo-hygrometric treatment of the air, and the consequent environmental impact linked to the external air enthalpy variation due to the green system. To study the thermo-hygrometric effects of any green system in different built urban areas, the set of governing equations expressing the above two balances at semi-steady-state conditions at periodic regime, is implemented, applying it to the green surface and, in a subsequent phase, to the building–plant system.

All the basic governing equations are solved by a finite element code using an iterative procedure.

The studied area is a portion of the city of Florence, identified and characterized using the database of the Municipal Environmental Energy Plan (PEAC), and QGIS software (version 3.40.1-Bratislava) interfacing with data from the GEOscope Observatory (Regione Toscana n.d.) Tuscany Region. Results obtained are the following:

It obtained the basic trends of temperatures of the external air and leaf surface, air relative humidity, global horizontal solar radiation, and wind velocity that are shown in Figures 5 and 6 for representative summer days (29–30 June and 1 July). The method, by means of the top-down and bottom-up processes, is applied to two important areas of the city of Florence. The first area is a neighbourhood structured around the tree-lined park of Vittoria Square (Figure 7), and the second area is the avenue, also tree-lined, extending from Libertà Square to Beccaria Square (Figure 8). In Vittoria Square, it is assumed that the treetops completely cover the space below the park (as they did originally and as they will most likely be in the years to come, when the new trees have fully taken root in the ground, developed in height and volume of root and leaf systems; in essence, they will have achieved a “mature age”) and that it is configured as a “concentrated context” in which to implement the simplified approach that starts from the buildings overlooking the square itself.

In particular, the existing buildings are identified, georeferenced and, basing on their intended use, the following mean air changes for indoor air quality and correct ventilation conditions are assigned (EN 16798-1:2019; Decree of the President of the Italian Republic 16 April 2013, n. 74): 1 volume/h for residential; 3 volumes/h for offices and accommodation facilities; 4 volumes/h for schools, considering the priority of class-rooms; 6 volumes/h for commercial activities.

Starting from the evaluation of the modified external air temperature of the green areas due to the evapotranspiration of the leaves’ coverage, governing equations of all the energy balances are implemented with an hourly calculation.

The top-down approach is applied taking into account overall surface covered by the canopy trees is equal to 5628 m2 for Vittoria Square and 34560 m2 for the second case study. Therefore a significant reduction in thermal power is obtained, which, when hourly integrated during the summer season, provides 415 MWh and 2675 MWh, respectively. When applying the bottom-up approach, the main characteristics of the buildings, i.e., ground area, height, volume, and intended use, and effective results for greenery systems are obtained (Barradas 1991; C., Bartesaghi Koc et al. 2018; R., Baraldi et al. 2019).

With a view to the energy transition, in accordance with current regulations for air quality, hygiene and health in confined environments, as foreseen after the COVID-19 pandemic by WHO, RHEVA, ASHRAE, AICARR, and ISS, it is assumed that the buildings are equipped with air conditioning systems of the type Variable Air Volume-Controlled Mechanical Ventilation (VAV-CMV) without the air recirculation condition.

Therefore, the reduction in energy consumption of the plant for the existing different types of buildings is calculated. The air enthalpy variation, in the absence and in presence of greenery, is calculated, and the resulting energy saving obtainable for each kilogram per second of air treated by the HVAC system is quantified.

Using the climatic data of Florence, the external air temperature reduction, connected to the presence of the leaves’ coverage, leads to an external air enthalpy reduction of 1965 kJ/kg. This last value is obtained considering the plant system operation for all the summer daytime hours in which the external air temperature is higher than 26 °C. This temperature value is set by the Italian Decree Law (2013) as the standard average set-point. For the area of Vittoria Square, 35 building blocks with different intended uses are identified, which affect the amount of air-change volumes.

They are mainly residential (26%) and include some commercial businesses (10%), accommodation facilities and offices (17%), schools and institutes (43%), and for a single case, a small private hospital (4%). In this case, the energy consumption reduction is 504 MWh. For the avenues from Libertà Square to Beccaria Square, 114 buildings are selected.

In this area, the percentage of air-change volumes for residential is 12% and for professional offices and accommodation facilities is 41%, while commercial activities account for 17% and schools/institutes account for 30%. It is important to note that for the whole summer season, the obtained energy consumption reduction is 2350 MWh.

The two methods are equivalent and consistent: small differences are completely within the expected accuracy range for the simplified biophysical and thermodynamic modelling used. For the area of Vittoria Square, the difference between the energy saved (MWh) is 18%, and for the avenues from Libertà Square to Beccaria Square is 12%.

Findings show that urban green spaces play a crucial role in the conservation of bio-diversity, favouring ecological balance and promoting a more sustainable urban environment, in line with most of the literature on the subject (Xian et al. 2024; Zhu et al. 2023; Callaghan et al. 2021).

The integrated methodological approach, of simple and easy implementation, useful for quantifying energy-environmental sustainability of urban areas was applied to different urban built-up areas with and without greenery. It is based on applied thermodynamics and physics-informed modelling, connected to high-resolution climate at urban scale, identification and characterization of plants for specific species and vegetation, and spatial georeferencing techniques, for energy exchange evaluation within the urban context. Its real applications have demonstrated the physical effectiveness of the extension of greenery, Nbs integration and any urban regeneration intervention to counteract heat islands and facilitate climate adaptation and resilience.

Energy balances of the studied system can be divided into multiple balances connected to the component sub-systems, some of which can be implemented without advanced functionalities. Therefore, small-scale and small-sized models can handle the simplest subroutines, allowing the application of large-scale and large-sized models on more complex system dynamics.

The effectiveness of the proposed method lies in the new paradigm for “collaboration”, the thermodynamic interfaces between small-scale and large-sized models. This “collaborative” and dynamic adaptive paradigm allows the development of sustainable grid-connected environmental energy choices integrated with fine-tuning choices, as it proceeds and develops over time also in relation to different futures scenarios.

In general, the results (especially at small scale) show that the larger and more extensive the vegetation in densely built-up urban areas, the more effective and efficient the possibilities of reducing the load by lowering the enthalpy of the external air. As a matter of fact, it is possible: heat recovery of the exhaust air, adiabatic pre-cooling of the exhaust air; post-heating of the dehumidified air by means of external air.

The adoption of these measures reduces summer consumption for external air thermo-hygrometric treatments, while maintaining the related consumption for ventilation, absolute humidity and pumping control.

Findings (especially at large scale), demonstrate that urban green spaces play a fundamental role in regulating temperature, counteracting the UHI and contributing to citizens wellbeing as also reported in (Bartesaghi Koc et al. 2018; Baraldi et al. 2019; Xian et al. 2024; Zhu et al. 2023; Callaghan et al. 2021). Indeed, results highlight that greenery and NbS integration would address a series of engineering and energy challenges.

Refurbishment and retrofitting interventions (for existing buildings to meet the current nZEB energy requirements) with low environmental impact would be effective in achieving urban resilience and implementing environmental and energy sustainability practices. NbS integration in urban areas would be beneficial to this goal, only when wisely designed, based on thermodynamics applications and assessment evidence: this allows the quantification of external air cooling and different surfaces through shading and evapotranspiration processes.

In particular, the proposed method at the two scales of analysis and implementation (bottom-up and top-down) was also used as an effective tool for economic planning.

It provides quantitative fundamentals to find out the necessary compromise between the construction of ecological systems and benefits in terms of energy saving, environmental sustainability and associated economic feasibility. Moreover, the energy balances do not impose specific constraints on boundary conditions, making the proposed approach highly adaptable and applicable to various urban settings, by means of real physics and thermodynamics. All the real examples explained and discussed above, have shown the most significant reductions in air enthalpy with a substantial increase in green surfaces, vegetation/greenery that work as a natural thermal regulator, effectively mitigating the heat fluxes, amplified within cities due to global warming and significant mutual radiative heat exchanges.

The operability of the proposed strategy is all the more effective, when more closely connected to a truly sustainable smart city, from a systemic point of view for energy transition and the green economy. This latter can be achieved through the integration of ecosystem services, widespread and large-scale NbS, and advanced technologies. It must be noted, that it is necessary to take into account climate variations and energy environmental dynamics/changes over years, in parallel with the time necessary for the complete development/growth of plants.

Thermodynamics-informed method allows a simple implementation for the identification of the most important and suitable interventions for building-plant system energy efficiency and regeneration, climate change adaptation, and UHI mitigation. It is not a deterministic tool, but it allows the construction of an homogeneous scale, of physical significance, for the identification of the most critical and vulnerable areas on which to intervene as a priority. Moreover, it provides comprehensive insights into the optimization of NBS planning based on thermodynamic energy footprint accounting, facilitating the improvement of mitigation of urban areas’ vulnerability to GW.

However, the successful implementation of such measures relies on strong institutional/municipal support. Municipalities must actively promote and support urban greening initiatives, recognizing the need for a paradigm shift in public perception of urban spaces and their role in well-being and life quality. This transition requires addressing critical issues such as mobility planning and long-term maintenance, ensuring that green ecosystem services become a fundamental element of sustainable urban development.

Findings deduced from experiences of application in the territorial reality, but also in the administrative, political-social one provide a comprehensive perspective that can provide useful support to architects in improving the urban thermal environment. The problem-solving process implemented with the proposed method, can be extended to built-up environment optimization professionals providing insights for climate-adaptive urban design.

Future developments of the proposed method, which we are currently experimenting with within a LIFE project applied to the city of Florence (LIFE23-CCA-IT-LIFE ESCAPOS “Environmental energy for Strategic CApillary urban POlicieS”,

https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/life/publicWebsite/project/LIFE23-CCA-IT-LIFE-ESCAPOS-101157553/environment-energy-for-strategic-capillary-urban-policies) concerns the application of thermodynamics for the study of complexity of the physical processes linked to NbS integration, by means of machine-learning techniques.

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Carla Balocco, University of Florence, Italy, carla.balocco@unifi.it, 0000-0002-8698-2097

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Carla Balocco, Thermodynamics for physical processes and energy environmental sustainability assessment at urban scale, © Author(s), CC BY 4.0, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0966-3.13, in Roberto Bologna, Anna Lambertini, Luca Solari (edited by), Nature and City. An Integrated Approach to Urban Biodiversity, pp. -114, 2025, published by Firenze University Press, ISBN 979-12-215-0966-3, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0966-3